Microwave Power Transmission Essay Example for Free

Microwave Power Transmission Essay Microwave power transmission (MPT) is one of the applications of microwaves to transmit power from one place to another place without the need for wires. It is the type of the Electromagnetic Radiations, one of the wireless energy transfer methods. Introduction: Firstly, we will talk about the term Microwaves, Microwaves can also be termed as Radio waves having wavelengths ranging from one millimeter to one meter and the frequencies from 300MHz to 300GHz. These are also known as millimeter waves. These waves can also be used for power transmission in such a way, by converting DC power to microwaves and then by using antenna, these are transmitted, and after that rectenna receive those waves and converts them into DC again which can be further inverted into AC. The basic components include microwave source, an antenna for transmission, and a rectenna as a receiver. It has many applications such as it is used for power supply purpose in orbital lift space ships. Discussion: After the World War II, we saw the development in high-power microwave emitters, also known as Cavity magnetrons, and this lead to the idea of using microwaves for power transmission. In 1964, William C. Brown demonstrated the working of rectenna in helicopter as it converts microwave power into electricity, and is capable of achieving high efficiencies – over 90%. Now it is commonly used for transferring energy to the surface of earth from solar power satellites. Numbers of researches are made. In 2008, an experiment of long range power transmission was performed and successfully transmitted 20 watts up-to 92 miles. Conclusion: Microwave Power Transmission is very efficient way of transferring power from one place to another, wirelessly. With the passage of time, its applications in daily life are increasing because of its efficiency. It is also perceived by the people that microwaves are very dangerous as they are used in microwave ovens but, it would be safe enough as the power level would be equal to the leakage but slightly more than the leakage from the cell phones. It has been also researched on multiple generations of animals by exposing them to microwave radiations of high intensity but no health issue was found.

Bilingual Education in American Schools Essay -- Argumentative Persuas

Suppose your child has been moved to China. Your child does not speak Chinese; is it the school system's responsibility to teach your child in English? Or should your child be expected to learn in the country's language and perhaps get extra help on the side? Why should a school district spend money on bilingual classes rather than on reducing class sizes? In the United States of America we have become a large melting pot of ethnic and cultural peoples. Along with these peoples have come many different languages and alphabets. However the US has been seen as a mostly English speaking country. Yet many of this country's newcomers do not speak English. Adults and children alike come into the US speaking and writing only their native tongue. This poses a huge gap in communication. If the adults are unable to teach their children English, then it becomes the school districts' responsibility. However to make learning easier on the child, many school districts choose to teach the child in their native language, while they receive English lessons on the side. The debate now is whether there is sufficient studies proving the effectiveness of Bilingual education and the need to continue it in many states. In 1998 Los Angeles County passed Proposition 227 to create bilingual education programs. (LA Times October 23.1998) Because of the passing of this bill many students were left in limbo waiting for teaching plans to be made. As well as the budget to be reformed to accommodate the extra expenses of a bilingual education programs, books, and to hire the proper teachers and aids to assists in the new bilingual classes. Often there are only a few children in a classroom being taught in their native language whil... ...etter spent in helping all children attending schools. Teachers who want to teach should not be discriminated against for their English only abilities and all the students in a classroom need to be given an equal chance to succeed. Works Cited: "A Boomtown Of Education", L.A Times, May, 25th 1998 (Front Page) http://www.onenation.org/0598/052598c.html A Mass News Exclusive "Bilingual Education in Massachusetts": A Troubled Program. http://www.massnews.com/sch13.htm "Hundreds Wait for Bilingual education", L.A Times Oct. 23, 1998 http://www-rcf.usc.edu/~cmmr/NEWS/L.A.Times_Oct23.html Padilla, Amado.   "Bilingual Education: Issues and Perspectives." From Community to College, New York, St. Martin's Press 1992 PBS Online Forum "Language and Education" Sep. 29, 1997 http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/september97/bilingual_9-29.html

Philippine Literature In The Spanish Colonial Period Essay

The existing literature of the Philippine ethnic groups at the time of conquest and conversion into Christianity was mainly oral, consisting of epics, legends, songs, riddles, and proverbs. The conquistador, especially its ecclesiastical arm, destroyed whatever written literature he could find, and hence rendered the system of writing inoperable. Among the only native systems of writing that have survived are the syllabaries of the Mindoro Mangyans and the Tagbanua of Palawan. The Spanish colonial strategy was to undermine the native oral tradition by substituting for it the story of the Passion of Christ. Although Christ was by no means war-like or sexually attractive as many of the heroes of the oral epic tradition, the appeal of the Jesus myth inhered in the protagonist’s superior magic: by promising eternal life for everyone, he democratized the power to rise above death. It is to be emphasized, however, that the native tradition survived and even flourished in areas inacc essible to the colonial power. Moreover, the tardiness and the lack of assiduity of the colonial administration in making a public educational system work meant the survival of oral tradition, or what was left of it, among the conquered tribes. The church authorities adopted a policy of spreading the Church doctrines by communicating to the native (pejoratively called Indio) in his own language. Doctrina Christiana (1593), the first book to be printed in the Philippines, was a prayerbook written in Spanish with an accompanying Tagalog translation. It was, however, for the exclusive use of the missionaries who invariably read them aloud to the unlettered Indio catechumens (Medina), who were to rely mainly on their memory. But the task of translating religious instructional materials obliged the Spanish missionaries to take a most practical step, that of employing native speakers as translators. Eventually, the native translator learned to read and write both in Spanish and his native language. (Forms of Literature)This development marked the beginning of Indio literacy and thus spurred the creation of the first written literary native text by the native. These writers, called ladinos because of their fluency in both  Spani sh and Tagalog, published their work, mainly devotional poetry, in the first decade of the 17th century. Among the earliest writers of note were Francisco de San Jose and Francisco Bagongbata (Medina). But by far the most gifted of these native poet-translators was Gaspar Aquino de Belen (Lumbera, p.14). Mahal Na Pasion ni Jesu Christo, a Tagalog poem based on Christ’s passion, was published in 1704. This long poem, original and folksy in its rendition of a humanized, indeed, a nativized Jesus, is a milestone in the history of Philippine letters. Ironically — and perhaps just because of its profound influence on the popular imagination — as artifact it marks the beginning of the end of the old mythological culture and a conversion to the new paradigm introduced by the colonial power. Until the 19th century, the printing presses were owned and managed by the religious orders. Thus, religious themes dominated the culture of the Christianized majority. But the native oral literature, whether secular or mythico-religious continued. Even among the Christianized ethnic groups, the oral tradition persisted in such forms as legends, sayings, wedding songs such as the b alayan and parlor theater such as the duplo. In the 18th century, secular literature from Spain in the form of medieval ballads inspired the native poetic-drama form called the komedya, later to be called moro-moro because these often dealt with the theme of Christians triumphing over Moslems. (Peronality) Jose de la Cruz (1746 – 1829) was the foremost exponent of the komedya during his time. A poet of prodigious output and urbane style, de la Cruz marks a turning point in that his elevated diction distinguishes his work from folk idiom (as for instance, that of Gaspar Aquino de Belen). Yet his appeal to the non-literate was universal. The popularity of the dramatic form, of which he was a master, was due to it being experienced as performance both by the lettered minority and the illiterate but genuinely appreciative majority. Francisco Baltazar (1788 – 1862), popularly called Balagtas, is the acknowledged master of traditional Tagalog poetry. Of peasant origins, he left his hometown in Bigaa, Bulacan for Manila, with a strong determination to improve his lot through education. To support his studies, he worked as a domestic servant in Tondo. He steeped himself in classical studies in schools of prestige in the capital. Great social and political changes in the world worked together to make Balagtas’ career as poet  possible. The industrial revolution had caused a great movement of commerce in the globe, creating wealth and the opportunity for material improvement in the life of the working classes. With these great material changes, social values were transformed, allowing greater social mobility. In short, he was a child of the global bourgeois revolution. Liberal ideas, in time, broke class — and, in the Philippines — even racial barriers (Medina). The word Filipino, which used to refer to a restricted group (i.e., Spaniards born in the Philippines) expanded to include not only the acculturated wealthy Chinese mestizo but also the acculturated Indio (Medina). Balagtas was one of the first Indios to become a Filipino. But the crucial element in Balagtas’ unique genius is that, being caught between two cultures (the native and the colonial/classical), he could switch codes (or was perceived by his compatriot audience to be switching codes), provide insight and information to his oppressed compatriots in the very style and guise of a tradition provided him by a foreign (and oppressive) culture. His narrative poem Florante at Laura written in sublime Tagalog, is about tyranny in Albanya, but it is also perceived to be about tyranny in his Filipino homeland (Lumbera). Despite the foreign influence, however, he remained true to his native traditions. His verse plays were performed to the motley crowd. His poems were sung by the literate for the benefit of the unlettered. The metrical regularity and rhyme performed their age-old mnemonic function, despite and because of the introduction of printing. Printing overtook tradition. The printed page, by itself, became the mnemonic device, the stage set for the development of prose. The first Filipino novel was Ninay, written in Spanish by Pedro Paterno, a Philippine-bornilustrado (Medina p. 93). Following the sentimental style of his first book Sampaguitas (a collection of poems in Spanish), the novel endeavored to highlight the endearingly unique qualities of Filipinos. National Hero Jose Rizal (1861 – 1896) chose the realis tic novel as his medium. Choosing Spanish over Tagalog meant challenging the oppressors on the latter’s own turf. By writing in prose, Rizal also cut his ties with the Balagtas tradition of the figurative indirection which veiled the supposed subversiveness of many writings at that time. Rizal’s two novels, the Noli Me Tangere and its sequel El Filibusterismo, chronicle the life and ultimate death of Ibarra, a Filipino educated abroad, who attempts to reform  his country through education. At the conclusion of the Noli, his efforts end in near-death and exile from his country. In the Filibusterismo, he returns after reinventing himself as Simoun, the wealthy jeweler, and hastens social decay by further corrupting the social fabric till the oppressed react violently to overthrow the system. But the insurrection is foiled and Simoun suffers a violent death. In a sense, Rizal’s novels and patriotic poems were the inevitable conclusion to the campaign for liberal reforms known as the Propaganda Movement, waged by Graciano Lopez Jaena, and M.H. del Pilar. The two novels so vividly portrayed corruption and oppression that despite the lack of any clear advocacy, they served to instill the conviction that there could be no solution to the social ills but a violent one. Following closely on the failed reformist movement, and on Rizal’s novels, was the Philippine revolution headed by Andres Bonifacio (1863 – 1897). His closest aide, the college-bred Emilio Jacinto (1875 – 1899), was the revolutionary organization’s ideologue. Both were admirers of Rizal, and like Rizal, both were writers and social critics profoundly influenced by the liberal ideas of the French enlightenment, about human dignity. Bonifacio’s most important work are his poems, the most well-known being Pag-Ibig Sa Tinubuang Lupa. Jacinto wrote political essays expressed in the language of the folk. Significantly, although either writer could have written in Spanish (Bonifacio, for instance, wrote a Tagalog translation of Rizal’s Ultimo Adios), both chose to communicate to their fellowmen in their own native language. The figure of Rizal dominates Philippine literature until the present day. Liberalism led to education of the native and the ascendancy of Spanish. But Spanish was undermined by the very ideas of liberation that it helped spread, and its decline led to nativism and a renaissance of literature in the native languages. The turn of the century witnessed not only the Philippine revolution but a quieter though no less significant outbreak. The educated women of the period produced significant poetry. Gregoria de Jesus, wife of Andres Bonifacio, wrote notable Tagalog poetry. Meanwhile, in Vigan of the Ilocano North, Leona Florentino, by her poetry, became the foremost Ilocano writer of her time. Philippine literary production during the American Period in the Philippines was spurred by two significant developments in education and culture. One is the introduction of free public instruction for all children of school age and two, the use of English as medium of instruction in all levels of education in public schools. Free public education made knowledge and information accessible to a greater number of Filipinos. Those who availed of this education through college were able to improve their social status and joined a good number of educated masses who became part of the country’s middle class. The use of English as medium of instruction introduced Filipinos to Anglo-American modes of thought, culture and life ways that would be embedded not only in the literature produced but also in the psyche of the country’s educated class. It was this educated class that would be the wellspring of a vibrant Philippine Literature in English. Philippine literature in English, as a direct result of American colonization of the country, could not escape being imitative of American models of writing especially during its period of apprenticeship. The poetry written by early poets manifested studied attempts at versification as in the following poem which is proof of the poet’s rather elementary exercise in the English language: Vacation days at last are here, And we have time for fun so dear, All boys and girls do gladly cheer, This welcomed season of the year. In early June in school we’ll meet; A harder task shall we complete And if we fail we must repeat That self same task without retreat. We simply rest to come again To school where boys and girls obtain The Creator’s gift to men Whose sanguine hopes in us remain. Vacation means a time for play For young and old in night and day My wish for all is to be gay, And evil none lead you astray – Juan F. Salazar Philippines Free Press, May 9, 1909 The poem was anthologized in the first collection of poetry in English, Filipino Poetry, edited by Rodolfo Dato (1909 – 1924). Among the poets featured in this anthology were Proceso Sebastian Maximo Kalaw, Fernando Maramag, Leopoldo Uichanco, Jose Ledesma, Vicente Callao, Santiago Sevilla, Bernardo Garcia, Francisco Africa, Pablo Anzures, Carlos P. Romulo, Francisco Tonogbanua, Juan Pastrana, Maria Agoncillo, Paz Marquez Benitez, Luis Dato and many others. Another anthology, The English German Anthology of Poets edited by Pablo Laslo was published and covered poets published from 1924-1934 among whom were Teofilo D. Agcaoili, Aurelio Alvero, Horacio de la Costa, Amador T. Daguio, Salvador P. Lopez, Angela Manalang Gloria, Trinidad Tarrosa, Abelardo Subido and Jose Garcia Villa, among others. A third pre-war collection of poetry was edited by Carlos Bulosan, Chorus for America: Six Philippine Poets. The six poets in this collection were Jose Garcia Villa, Rafael Zulueta da Cos ta, Rodrigo T. Feria, C.B. Rigor, Cecilio Baroga and Carlos Bulosan. In fiction, the period of apprenticeship in literary writing in English is marked by imitation of the style of storytelling and strict adherence to the craft of the short story as practiced by popular American fictionists. Early short story writers in English were often dubbed as the Andersons or Saroyans or the Hemingways of Philippine letters. Leopoldo Yabes in his study of the Philippine short story in English from 1925 to 1955 points to these models of American fiction exerting profound influence on the early writings of story writers like Francisco Arcellana, A.E. Litiatco, Paz Latorena. . When the University of the Philippines was founded in 1908, an elite group of writers in English began to exert influence among the culturati. The U.P. Writers Club founded in 1926, had stated that one of its aims was to enhance and propagate the â€Å"language of Shakespeare.† In 1925, Paz Marquez Benitez short story, â€Å"Dead Stars† was published and was made the landmark of the maturity of the Filipino writer in English. Soon after Benitez, short story writers began publishing stories no longer imitative of American models. Thus, story writers like Icasiano Calalang, A.E. Litiatco, Arturo Rotor, Lydia Villanueva, Paz Latorena , Manuel Arguilla began publishing stories  manifesting both skilled use of the language and a keen Filipino sensibility. This combination of writing in a borrowed tongue while dwelling on Filipino customs and traditions earmarked the literary output of major Filipino fictionists in English during the American period. Thus, the major novels of the period, such as the Filipino Rebel, by Maximo Kalaw, and His Native Soil by Juan C. Laya, are discourses on cultural identity, nationhood and being Filipino done in the English language. Stories such as â€Å"How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife† by Manuel Arguilla scanned the scenery as well as the folkways of Ilocandia while N.V. M. Gonzales’s novels and stories such as â€Å"Children of the Ash Covered Loam,† present the panorama of Mindoro, in all its customs and traditions while configuring its characters in the human dilemma of nostalgia and poverty. Apart from Arguilla and Gonzales, noted fictionists during the period included Francisco Arcellana, whom Jose Garcia Villa lauded as a â€Å"genius† storyteller, Consorcio Borje, Aida Rivera, Conrado Pedroche, Amador Daguio, Sinai Hamada, Hernando Ocampo, Fernando Maria Guerrero. Jose Garcia Villa himself wrote several short stories but devoted most of his time to poetry. In 1936, when the Philippine Writers League was organized, Filipino writers in English began discussing the value of literature in society. Initiated and led by Salvador P. Lopez, whose essays on Literature and Society provoked debates, the discussion centered on proletarian literature, i.e., engaged or committed literature versus the art for art’s sake literary orientation. But this discussion curiously left out the issue of colonialism and colonial literature and the whole place of literary writing in English under a colonial set-up that was the Philippines then. With Salvador P. Lopez, the essay in English gained the upper hand in day to day discourse on politics and governance. Polemicists who used to write in Spanish like Claro M. Recto, slowly started using English in the discussion of current events even as newspaper dailies moved away from Spanish reporting into English. Among the essayists, Federico Mangahas had an easy facility with the language and the essay as genre. Other noted essayists during the period were Fernando Maramag, Carlos P. Romulo , Conrado Ramirez. On the other hand, the flowering of a vibrant literary tradition due to historical events did not altogether hamper literary production in the native or indigenous languages. In fact, the early period of the 20th century was  remarkable for the significant literary output of all major languages in the various literary genre. (Forms Of lit) It was during the early American period that seditious plays, using the form of the zarsuwela, were mounted. Zarsuwelistas Juan Abad, Aurelio Tolentino ,Juan Matapang Cruz. Juan Crisostomo Sotto mounted the classics like Tanikalang Ginto, Kahapon, Ngay on at Bukas and Hindi Ako Patay, all directed against the American imperialists. Patricio Mariano’s Anak ng Dagat and Severino Reyes’s Walang Sugat are equally remarkable zarsuwelas staged during the period. On the eve of World War II, Wilfredo Maria Guerrero would gain dominance in theatre through his one-act plays which he toured through his â€Å"mobile theatre†. Thus, Wanted a Chaperone and The Forsaken House became very popular in campuses throughout the archipelago. The novel in Tagalog, Iloko, Hiligaynon and Sugbuanon also developed during the period aided largely by the steady publication of weekly magazines like the Liwayway, Bannawag and Bisaya which serialized the novels. Among the early Tagalog novelists of the 20th century were Ishmael Amado, Valeriano Hernandez Peà ±a, Faustino Aguilar, Lope K. Santos and Lazaro Francisco. Ishmael Amado’s Bulalakaw ng Pag-asa published in 1909 was one of the earliest novels that dealt with the theme of American imperialism in the Philippines. The novel, however, was not released from the printing press until 1916, at which time, the author, by his own admission and after having been sent as a pensionado to the U.S., had other ideas apart from those he wrote in the novel. Valeriano Hernandez Peà ±a’s Nena at Neneng narrates the story of two women who happened to be best of friends as they cope with their relationships with the men in their lives. Nena succeeds in her married life while Neneng suffers from a stormy marriage because of her jealous husband. Faustino Aguilar published Pinaglahuan, a love triangle set in the early years of the century when the worker’s movement was being formed. The novel’s hero, Luis Gatbuhay, is a worker in a printery who isimprisoned for a false accusation and loses his love, Danding, to his rival Rojalde, son of a wealthy capitalist. Lope K. Santos, Banaag at Sikat has almost the same theme and motif as the hero of the novel, Delfin, also falls in love with a rich woma n, daughter of a wealthy landlord. The love story of course is set also within the background of development of the worker’s trade union movement  and throughout the novel, Santos engages the readers in lengthy treatises and discourses on socialism and capitalism. Many other Tagalog novelists wrote on variations of the same theme, i.e., the interplay of fate, love and social justice. Among these writers are Inigo Ed Regalado, Roman Reyes, Fausto J. Galauran, Susana de Guzman, Rosario de Guzman-Lingat, Lazaro Francisco, Hilaria Labog, Rosalia Aguinaldo, Amado V. Hernandez. Many of these writers were able to produce three or more novels as Soledad Reyes would bear out in her book which is the result of her dissertation, Ang Nobelang Tagalog (1979). Among the Iloko writers, noted novelists were Leon Pichay, who was also the region’s poet laureate then, Hermogenes Belen, and Mena Pecson Crisologo whose Mining wenno Ayat ti Kararwa is considered to be the Iloko version of a Noli me Tangere. In the Visayas, Magdalena Jalandoni and Ramon Muzones would lead most writers in writing the novels that dwelt on the themes of love, courtship, life in the farmlands, and other social upheavals of the period. Marcel Navarra wrote stories and novels in Su gbuhanon. Poetry in all languages continued to flourish in all regions of the country during the American period. The Tagalogs, hailing Francisco F. Balagtas as the nation’s foremost poet invented the balagtasan in his honor. Thebalagtasan is a debate in verse, a poetical joust done almost spontaneously between protagonists who debate over the pros and cons of an issue. The first balagtasan was held in March 1924 at the Instituto de Mujeres, with Jose Corazon de Jesus and Florentino Collantes as rivals, bubuyog (bee) and paru-paro (butterfly) aiming for the love of kampupot (jasmine). It was during this balagtasan that Jose Corazon de Jesus, known as Huseng Batute, emerged triumphant to become the first king of the Balagtasan. Jose Corazon de Jesus was the finest master of the genre. He was later followed by balagtasistas, Emilio Mar Antonio and Crescenciano Marquez, who also became King of the Balagtasan in their own time. As Huseng Batute, de Jesus also produced the finest poems and lyrics during the period. His debates with Amado V. Hernandez on the political issue of independence from America and nationhood were mostly done in verse and are testament to the vitality of Tagalog poetry during the era. Lope K. Santos, epic poem, Ang Panggingera is also proof of how poets of the period have come to master the language to be able to translate it into effective poetry. The balagtasan would be  echoed as a poetical fiesta and would be duplicated in the Ilocos as thebukanegan, in honor of Pedro Bukaneg, the supposed transcriber of the epic, Biag ni Lam-ang; and theCrissottan, in Pampanga, in honor of the esteemed poet of the Pampango, Juan Crisostomo Sotto. In 1932, Alejandro G. Abadilla , armed with new criticism and an orientation on modernist poetry would taunt traditional Tagalog poetics with the publication of his poem, â€Å"Ako ang Daigdig.† Abadilla’s poetry began the era of modernism in Tagalog poetry, a departure from the traditional rhymed, measured and orally recited poems. Modernist poetry which utilized free or blank verses was intended more for silent reading than oral delivery. Noted poets in Tagalog during the American period were Julian Cruz Balmaceda, Florentino Collantes, Pedro Gatmaitan, Jose Corazon de Jesus, Benigno Ramos, Inigo Ed. Regalado, Ildefonso Santos, Lope K. Santos, Aniceto Silvestre, Emilio Mar. Antonio , Alejandro Abadilla and Teodoro Agoncillo. Like the writers in English who formed themselves into organizations, Tagalog writers also formed the Ilaw at Panitik, and held discussions and workshops on the value of literature in society. Benigno Ramos, was one of the most politicized poets of the period as he aligned himself with the peasants of the Sakdal Movement. Fiction in Tagalog as well as in the other languages of the regions developed alongside the novel. Most fictionists are also novelists. Brigido Batungbakal , Macario Pineda and other writers chose to dwell on the vicissitudes of life in a changing rural landscape. Deogracias Del Rosario on the other hand, chose the city and the emerging social elite as subjects of his stories. He is considered the father of the modern short story in Tagalog Among the more popular fictionists who emerged during the period are two women writers, Liwayway Arceo and Genoveva Edroza Matute, considered forerunners in the use of â€Å"light† fiction, a kind of story telling that uses language through poignant rendition. Genoveva Edroza Matute’s â€Å"Ako’y Isang Tinig† and Liwayway Arceo’s â€Å"Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa† have been used as models of fine writing in Filipino by teachers of composition throughout the school system. Teodoro Agoncillo’s anthology 25 Pinakamahusay na Maiikling Kuwento (1945) included the foremost writers of fiction in the pre-war era. The separate, yet parallel developments of Philippine literature in English and those in Tagalog and other languages of the archipelago during the  American period only prove that literature and writing in whatever language and in whatever climate are able to survive mainly through the active imagination of writers. Apparently, what was lacking during the period was for the writers in the various languages to come together, share experiences and come to a conclusion on the elements that constitute good writing in the Philippines.

Job stress - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 29 Words: 8841 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Chapter no. 2 2) A review of literature Job stress has been recognized as a serious and chronic cause of individual suffering, irritation, strain and discomforts. As a matter of fact little research work has so far been carried out on the topic of job stress in Pakistan. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Job stress" essay for you Create order On the other hand plenty of work has been done on the topic across the world particularly in the U.S.A and Europe. For the purpose of conducting review of relevant literature on the topic, the researcher was obliged to browse through Internet and to find relevant materials. The magnitude of research work done on job stress across the world and the quantum of data available on the topic on the Internet is phenomenal and is outside the scope of this chapter to incorporate it all. However an effort has been made to select a few closely related dissertations, reports and articles on the topic for review purpose. This review examines published evidences on the causes and effects of job stress, and the implications for nurses/employees in organisations. It is worth mentioning here that in todays dynamic world the nursing profession is considered to be full of stress. British Psychological Society, 1988 stated job stress as one of the top ten industrial diseases in the US. Willcox (1994), reported that atleast 25% of the employees are psychlogically stressed at any one time. It has serious implications for the health of the workers in the society as a whole. The Health of The Nation (HMSO, 1992) describes that this area needs to be addressed to promote the health of the workers (government documents 1992). Stress is one of the most inaccurate words in the scientific literature reported by williams (1994). The term sometimes indicates stressfull events and sometime indicate the effect of these events on work performance and sometime dis ordered health remarked by Maclean (1985). Marmot Et. Al 1987 reports that job stress is lack of understanding how work enviroment make a person ill. Job stress refer to broad class of problems indicated by Lazarus (1971) Any demand which atax the system, whatever it is, a physiological system, a social system or a psychological system, and the response of that system. There is greater consensus about the meaning and effect of job stress. WHO (1986) stated that stress is a dynamic state of mind characterized by reasonable harmony between a persons abilities, needs and expectations, and environmental demands and opportunities. Prof. Cox (1993) concentrates on the importance for general health of a state of balance between needs and demands, citing the Wo rld Health Organisations definition of well-being: Research study on job stress concludes; Hans Selye (1956) is considered as the father of stress research. The Stress of Life (1956), a book by Hans Seyle introduced the concept of stress in the public domain and his General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS] is a popular one amongst the research scholor of psychology and management. Stress a state, manifested by a specific syndrome of biological events Selye (1974). He argued that stress is not entirely a bad event. According to him stress is the reaction of the physical body toward a situation or event, which is demanding. Any kind of normal activity can produce considerable stress without causing any harmful effects (Selye, 1974), Selye 1982 clearly state that the non specific implication of any demand put on the body be its effect mental or somatic. The uncertainty that occurs at the organizational, unit, group, and individual levels. Uncertainty exists to the extent that knowledge about an event or condition requiring action or resolution is experienced as inadequate reported by Schuler and Jackson (1986). Edwards (1988) view about the stress is that A negative discrepancy between an individuals perceived state and desired state, provided that the presence of this discrepancy is considered important by the individual. Taylor (1992) reported about stress in the following words Demands made upon us [internally or externally] which we perceive as exceeding our adaptive resources. If we try to cope and that is ineffective this gives rise to stress. If this stress is prolonged then lasting psychological and physical damage may occur. Hereby demands we do mean that arise from the workload or work burden. Cox (1993) perception of stress is from te assumption that stressor are discreat, time limited and various events of the life requiring adjustments or adaptaion are utterly associated with stress. Holmes and Rahe (1967) ranked the potential stressfull events which may be work or non work related such as death of spouse, divorce, marriage (not all negative), fired from work marital reconciliation, retirement, bussiness readjustment, change in work responsibilities trouble with boss change in work condition. (Holmes and Rahe, 1967). Job stress is the sum total of factors experienced in relation to work which affects the psychosocial and physiological homeostasis of the worker. The individual factor is termed a stressor and stress is the individual workers reaction to stressors. Suggested by Weiman (1977). Beehr and OHara (1987) used stressor rather than stress to refer to causal factors becausefew people misinterpret stressor to mean the persons reaction. And uses strain to mean the state ofbeing stressed as evidenced by physiological, psychological or medical indices, Hans Selye (1951) report about The General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS] states that, in response to a stressor, an initial alarm reaction is followed by a stage of resistance in which resistance to the original stressor builds up but ability to resist new stressors is lowered. Eventually a stage of exhaustion sets in which ends in catastrophic inability to cope with any form of stress. 2.1 The human face of nursing, (2001): Commented on nursing profession; The female nurses faces challenging situations on daily basis. They face crying and dying patients and their task is stressfull , unrewarding and frightening. 2.2 Theimportance of the nursing profession is evident from the fact that the ILO has commissioned a manual with the title job stress in nursing profession to control and prevent the stress by Professor Cox (ILO 2001) 2.3 ILO (2001) reported. The occupation of nursing is related with challenges and demanding tasks. It is also full of overload, role conflit and role ambiguity. So, there is a great need to initiate a stress intervention and stress management program for nurses. 2.4 ILO(2001) presented that various research studies have tried to work out the effect of job stress on job performance and job satisfaction of nurses. It has been established that a negative relation exist between job stress and job performance and job satisfaction. 2.5 Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2001) research report with the title; the workplace stress epidemic; reveals that 53% of the employees have experienced a stress in the work place, International Stress Management Association (2001) found that one out of four working force have suffered due to stress related sickness. One out of five has suffered extreme stress in the work palce. 2.5 The HSE(2001) research found, a highky significant co relation between extreme stress and poor working condition. The employees have reported a wide rang of health problems and behavior problems, Professor Andy Smith have confirmed the fact that job stress is one of the most evident problem in the work enviroment. 2.6 The Bristol team(2000)has reported that 30% increase in job stress has been occurred in the work enviroment. The major problems indicated by job stress related illness are depression, anxiety, backach and musculo skeletal disorders. 2.7 Chartered Management Institute in 2001has found that long hours work load, working late at night has become a culture in the todays modern organization and as such are sources of job stress. 2.8 This study by the CMI and healthcare(2000), has reportd that 25% of the executive had gone on sick leave in the past one year due to job stress, 75% of the executive has reported that job stress was demaging their home life, health, performace at work and satisfaction level.. 2.9 The Health and Safety Executive (2001); research survey stated about sorces of stress and the circumstances which result in stress. The sources of stress are work overload, repetative work, role conflict, role ambiguity, danger, harasment and bullying, poor relation ship, in flexible shedule, lack of social support, confusion, lack of communication and poor working condition etc. 2.9.1Cary Cooper(1995), has argued that the trends in the american society are the major sources of job stress, such as working for long hours, down sizing and no contact culture. 2.10 According to Elizabeth Burtney (2002),who found the organization are full of stress and therefore we should focus on the stress intervention in the organization as wel as on stressed out indivisual. 2.11 Professor Stephen Palmer(2001)reported in his research study that stress in a universal thing. Everyone can be stressed and the threshold level of every body will be different. It depend on the person how he percieves a specific situation. Stress may be the result of the interactio between the person and enviroment. 2.11.1 Professor Cary Cooper (1995) has argued that insecurity in the organization stereo type attitude of the boss may be the major sources of stress. For employees it is necessary that they should have complete control on the job because of lack of control some time result in job stress. 2.11.2 Elizabeth Burtney of HEBS research(2004) reveals that stress in this modern world too carries a stigma in the closed style of management where the employees are expected to work hard and no concern is shown for their home life. The employees too never talk about the job stress. 2.12 Elizabeth Burtney of HEBS (2002)reported.That every job has some stress and the most stressful job is that where there is the element of change. Some professions such as health care education, games, and sports are highly stressful and risky. 2.13 Professor Cary Cooper(1997) has found the most stressful jobs of todays world. These are security personnels, social organization, education the proffession of nursing, medical and dentistry, sports and games, acting, jornalism, transportation and resturants. 2.14 Professor Cooper (1997)has assessedthat 60% increase in the job stress level has been occurred. Further he has measured the intensity of job stress in various proffession. 2.15According to an article with the title, Job stress and job satisfaction of employees in German radiotherapy (2001), which concludes that the greatest source of job stress stemmed from underpayment, crying patients,keeping patients fit and living,long hours, role conflict etc. Physicians and nurses showed a significantly higher stress level on scales such as structural conditions and particularly compassion than radiographers and physicists. Finally, rating of job stress and satisfaction depends significantly on the age group, gender, experience and the hospital. 2.16 K. CHANDRAIAH et. al. (1990) research study with title;Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction among Managers, states;Individuals under excessive stress tend to find their jobs less satisfying. Some of their intrinsic or extrinsic needs may be thwarted or not met sufficiently.Corroborating many studies in the literature (Hollingworth et. al. 1988; Keller, 1975), the findingsof the present study also reveal the same. The subjects with lower job satisfaction were found to experience more stress in the form of overload,role ambiguity, role conflict, under participation, powerlessness and low status compared to those with higher job satisfaction. Age, therefore, was found to be of importance in these study findings. The results of the study reiteratethe significance of demands at each career development level as pointed out by Hallingworth.And the individuals encounter crisis at each developmental stage as hypothesized by Erickson.Significantly decreasing stress and increasing job satisfaction with increasing age was found among the managers and these confirm the importance of the developmental process. 2.17 An Empirical Study (1999) with title, Effect of Job Stress reported that; job stress is one of the vital issues in the organisation. It has been established that a negative relation exist between job stress and job performance, job stress and job satisfaction. 2.18 This review with title factors influencing stress and job satisfaction(2001): shows that various elements effect stress level and job satisfaction. These elements are leadership, quality control, relation between doctor and nurse. It has been established that a negative relationship exists between leadership, stress and job satisfaction. Although a positive relationship between clinical leadership and nurses job satisfaction was found, the association between clinical leadership and quality of inter-professional collaboration is unclear. The association between these variables and job satisfaction is positive but tenuous. In addition, a positive but weak relationship was revealed between the clinical leadership and the quality of relationships amongst nurses. Organisational issues, lack of nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward type mental health nurses stress emerged as mediating variables between stress and job satisfaction. 2.19 Beatrice et. al. (2002) has found that the higher is the demand on job the higher will be the stress and demanding job negatively affect the health of the nurses and result in deterioration of general health. 2.20 Center for Organizational Health and Development(2002) researched on job related stress in nursing:The research appears to support the view that, together, factors inherent in the nursing role and in the organizational culture within which the nurse works are as important a determinant of the experience of stress by nurses as the type of nursing pursued. Stress in nursing reflects the overall complexity of the nurses role, rather than any particular aspects of their individual tasks. Different nursing groups report similar levels of stress, the profile of stressors associated with those similar levels differed somewhat between groups. However, the inter-group differences reported in those studies and others are not sufficient to argue for the separate treatment of the various nurse groups which exist in hospitals. Therefore, while strategies forstress management needs to be tailored to the generic group, hospital-based nurses, they do not need to be further tailored to distingui sh between different types of hospital-based nurses. 2.21 HSE(1995) research study entitled health effects of stress in nursing states that job stress negatively effect quality of nurses work it results in creating minor psychiatric morbidity, physical illness and a lot of other health related diseases. It also increases the musculo skeletal disorder and depression. Nurses are amongst those groups of profession which reported a higher level of stress. 2.22 The study here is of Kaohsiung City government employees, china human resource management deptt (2000), entitled job stress relation with social support and job performance.It has been proved in the above research study that there is great relevance between job stress and job performance. job stress is inversly propotional to job performance. Further social support has a great impact on level of job stress. Greater social support results in the reduction of stress level and hence increases the perfromance of the employees. The report also indicated that female employees feel more stressed as compared to male employees (Bheer 2000). 2.23 Ms santha et. al. (2003) research report has presented that the stress level of the employees has various effects on the employees as well as on the organization. Due to stress the employee may give more absenteeism, accidents, high turnover rate and impaired descion. Upto some extent stress may be a good thing. It gives the push and motivation to the employee. But extreme stress is harmful. It may result in poor performance and yet productivity of the employees is reduced. 2.24 NIOSH (1999) reported that; 40% of workers say their job is extremely stressfull. 26% of workers report burnout during working hours. 2.25 Davids and Theresas(1999)have reported that 25% of the employees have considered there job stressful, 75% of the employees say that the task is the modern organisation is more stressful than earlier. Job stress may give a lot of problems during the work and it is attached with health problems etc. 2.26 NIOSH (2001) model of job stress is self explanatory; STRESSFUL JOB CONDITION=RISK OF INJURY ILLNESS. (Individual/situation factor apply) 2.27 The NIOSH (1999) research study on gender and job stress finds that sex descrimination and role conflict and role ambiguity and family demand may have more severe effect on female employees. Stress can be reduced in the organisation by introducing a change in the workplace. It may result in the reduction of stress levels for both workers male and females. The organization should promote family friendly policiy, discourge sex descrimination. 2.28 The research study with the title Women in Construction has reported that women in the construction industry have complaints of frequent harasment isolation and abuses by her co workers. The turn over of the female workers in the construction industry is higher as compared to others. Female labours in this industry are always at higher risk due to lack of safety measures and trainings. 2.29 In the research study by NIOSH (1999) of females workers in the internal revencue service (IRS), which states that musculoskeletal discomfort can be reduced to a great extent if periodic rest is provided to the worker during working hours. It may result in higer job performance. 2.30 NIOSH (2001) has presented in a survey that 60% of the woman workers have reported that stress is a great problem for them. They have cited that the following are the major sources of stress during job for females employees, role conflict and role ambiguity, poor relationship with other workers, burden of work, rush poor working enviroment, monotonus and repetitive work, lack of control over job, demands etc. 2.31 Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (2001) indicated that in the current era the stress related expenditure on employees is 50% higher than the early period. 2.32Encyclopaedia of Occupational Safety and Health(2001)states that high demanding jobs enhances the risk of cardiovascular diseases, musculoskeletal disorders, psychological problems, injuries at work, suicide, cancer, ulcer and impaired immune function. 2.33 NIOSH(2001) research report on job stress health and productivity states that job stress has inverse relation with productivity and it negatively affect the health of the employees. Stressful working condition results in poor health of the employees. Job stress increases absenteeism, tardiness, higher turnover and poor health. 2.34 Journal of Applied Psychology (2001)reseacrh report with the title Stress Prevention and Job Performance states that effect of intervention programe on job stress is very encouraging. The organization should educate employee on job stress, inform the employees regarding policies of the organization, how to reduce job stress and initiate employees support program. Stress prevention program encourage employees and results in enhanced production. 2.35 NIOSH (2000)has reported thaton average employees remain off the job for alost 20 days due to job stress, so job stress results in increased absenteeism. 2.36 The report by national insurance company 1992 enitiled employee burnout states that job stress directly propotional to burn out. Employees stress level should be reduced to avoid employees burn out. In the research study by the national insurance company that female workers feel more stressed than male workers. The chances of burnout and physical sickness related to job stress are more among female workers. The reason may be that the women are paid less than male workers. 2.37 European Agency (2001) research report has mentioned the following details which may be considered at the cost of Each year millions of working days are lost due to job stress. The cost of job stress in term of money is in millions of dollars. 2.38 Many studies have tried to determine the posible positive relationship between job stress and violance at work drug use. One study has established the fact that job stress creates negative indivisuals and has negative effect on the organization. The workers who experienced job stress start using drugs and alcohol and tobacco to reduce there tension, so job stress is one of the reason for drinking in the workers ILO (2001). 2.39 University of utara(2004), Malaysia, school of accounting, report on job stress among professional accountants working in selected public firms, a Malaysia case, establish and extends that job stressors faced by workers during job includes workload, role conflict, role ambiguity, lack of job autonomy and lack of job control. 2.40 A research report in Saudi Medical Journal (2003)titledJob satisfaction and organizationalcommitment states that female nurses are more satisfied and contented in the public sector hospital, the study further reveals that satisfied nurses provide higher output as compared to less satisfied nurses. The other factor for higher production from nurses is there comittment toward job. 2.41 A report in journal of health (2003) with title stress and suicide in nurses revealed that the relation between stress and suicide remained U shaped.when the job stress and home stress are combined, five fold increase in risk of suicide among women occurs.risk of suicide among high stress women is more compare to low stress experience by women. 2.42 School of Health Science (2002),Blekinge Institute of Technology Karlskrona,Sweden entitled job stress of nurses concludes that stress contains amongst other the element of moral. There is shortage of nurses in the health care and organisational structure too impedes nursing performance to avoid the negative consequences of stress for nurses moral support is required. In ICU stress and complex situation are common for all nurses, the stress implication are sometime ethical issues, morbidity and burn out, the report revealed. 2.43 Queensland University of Technology(2002), thesis with the title The influence of work stress and work support on burnout in public hospital nurses States that female nurses with high level of stress and little support have experience high rate of burnout. Job stressors were the main predictors of Emotional Exhaustion, Conflict. Changes in the objective conditions at work have had major implications for nurses subjective experiences of work, with increasing numbers of nurses feeling stressed and as a consequence, are opting to work part-time or leave the profession 2.44 HSJ HEALTH SCIENCE JOURNAL(2005), REPORT CARRYING THE TITLE job stress and job satisfactionshows that a strong negative relationship was found between clinical leadership, inter-professional collaboration, and stress and job satisfaction. Although a positive relationship between clinical leadership and nurses job satisfaction was found, the association between clinical leadership and quality of inter-professional collaboration is unclear. The association between these variables and job satisfaction is positive but tenuous. In addition, a positive but weak relationship was revealed between the clinical leadership and the quality of relationships amongst nurses. Organisational issues, lack of nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward type mental health nurses stress emerged as mediating variables between stress and job satisfaction. 2.45 A research study by Deptt of medicine(2006). University of Ottawa, enitiled, job stress corelation with job satisfaction and burn outThe findings are that medical staff frequently faces burn out due to high level of job stress. The turn over rate amongst the highly stressed workers are very high. The problem of burnout is common amongst the staff of cancer unit. 2.46 A research paper by School of Health Care Practice 2006, Anglia Polytechnic University, Chelmsford, Essex(2009), UK,entitled Workplace stress in nursing finds that workload, management style, professional conflict and emotional cost of caring and leadership style, lack of reward and shift working are the main sources of stress for nurses for many years. Stress management programe should concentrate on stress prevention as well as how organization should takle this vital issue. 2.47 The Graduate College University of Wisconsin-Stout (2005), Research Paper with title OCCUPATIONAL STRESS IN MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELORS, concludes that,The mental healthcounselors involved in completing the survey instruments scored an average of2.57 on afive point scale, with past administrations of the Weiman Occupational Stress Scalehaving yielded a baseline score of 2.25. The mental health counselors in this study scoredon average 13% higher than the calculated WOSS baseline. Employees in publiclyfunded institutions (Winnebago Mental Health) experience greater perceived work stressthan those counselors in privately funded clinics. 2.48 Research studyconducted by Carol Brewer(2000)mentioned that new comers in the profession of nursing confront enhanced stress as compared to existing lot .New nurses have reported the following are the major sources of job stress for them; complex jobs ,long hours,overtimes frequently, role conflict, role ambiguity, dangerous working conditions,abuses, inadequate resources and strain. 2.49An Exploratorystudy(2001) to dig out the job stressors conducted in Tiawan on nurses concludes that changes in the todays organizations,role conflict, role ambiguity,lack of social support,working environment in the hospital, demanding job of nurses are the main stressors for nurses. 2.50 European Journal(2005) of Social Sciences, reportentitled Link between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction signify that job stress and job satisfaction are invrsely corelated. According to Stamps Piedmonte (1986) job satisfaction has been found significant relationship with job stress. One study of general practitioners in England identified four job stressors that were predictive of job dissatisfaction (Cooper, et al., 1989). In other study, Vinokur-Kaplan (1991) stated that organization factors such as workload and working condition were negatively related with job satisfaction. Fletcher Payne (1980) identified that a lack of satisfaction can be a source of stress, while high satisfaction can alleviate the effects of stress. This study reveals that, both of job stress and job satisfaction were found to be interrelated. The study of Landsbergis (1988) and Terry et al. (1993) showed that high levels of work stress are associated with low levels of job satisfaction. Moreover, Cummi ns (1990) have emphasized that job stressors are predictive of job dissatisfaction and greater propensity to leave the organization. Sheena et al. (2005) studied in UK found that there are some occupations that are reporting worse than average scores on each of the factors such as physical health, psychological well-being, and job satisfaction. The relationship between variables can be very important to academician. If a definite link exists between two variables, it could be possible for a academician to provide intervention in order to increase the level of one of the variables in hope that the intervention will also improve the other variable as well (Koslowsky, et al., 1995). 2.51 A Study of Job Stress and Job Satisfaction among UniversityStaff in Malaysia, a research article(2007)investigates what corelation exists between job stress and job satisfaction? Inverse relationship exists between job stress and job satisfaction. The stressors that have been taken for research contain leadership style and interference by management, relationship with peers, work burden, role ambiguity, and role conflict. 2.52Faculty of Education (2001), University of Ibadan, article entitledEffects of Job Stress states that stress has negative effect on health, physical and mental, work behaviour,and performance,satisfaction level. 2.53 Heavy workloads, difficult students and lack of resources are stressing out Australian teachers (1999). Many also experience stress from increasing violence and bullying. In one recent year, 274 teachers in Victoria were either assaulted or threatened by students and another 70 were attacked by colleagues. Over the past five years , 910 teachers in Victoria and 1150 teachers in New South Wales have filed worker compensation claims for anxiety,depression,nervous breakdown and other stress related symptom. Union leaders say these figures are just the tip of the iceberg: Teacher are very reluctant to proceed with those claims because it just adds another problem and additional stress, explains Australian education union president John Gregory Teaching in Australia may be stressful, but the profession seems to be under siege in the Uk , Janice Howell a primary school teacher in Newport (South Wales)is one of the casualties. She initially had the assistance of an English language tea cher but that teacher took long-term leave with no replacement. Unable to cope with 28 kids, 11 of them with learning or behavioral difficulties, Howell had a nervous breakdown. After recovering several months later, Howell complained to the school about the intolerable stress. Rather than providing support, the school added two more troubled kids to Howells class. One student, new to Wales, ran away one morning and was seen playing near dangerous mudflats. Although he was taken home safely, no one told Howell until the end of the day. This led to Howells second breakdown, ending her career. From being a confident, well adjusted teacher who enjoyed her job I became depressed and dysfunctional, says Howell for the first time in my life I did hate to go to work. It got to the stage that I was physically unable to enter the classroom. 2.54 Nebuo Miuro (1999)quoted in the book about stress that employees are under a lot of pressure from his employer to get a new restaurant ready for its launch. The interiors fitter from Tokyo worked late, sometimes until 4.30 in the morning. After one such marathon, Miuro caught a few hour sleep, then return for another long day. But he didnt get very far. The 47 year old suddenly took ill and keeled over while picking up his hammer and nails. He died a week later. The corners verdict was that Miuro died of Karoshi_death by overwork. Karoshi accounts for nearly 10000 deaths each year in Japan. Research indicates that long work hours cause an unhealthy lifestyle such as smoking, poor eating habits, lack of physical exercise and sleeplessness. This result in weight gain, which, along with stressful working conditions, damages the cardiovascular system and leads to strokes and heart attacks. Karoshi came to the public spotlight in the 1970s when Japans economy was booming, but the cou ntrys current recession is making matters worse.companies are laying off employees and loading the extra work onto those who remain. Performance based expectations are replacing life qtime employment guarantees, putting further pressure on employees to work long hours. Many also blame Japans samurai spirit culture which idolizes long work hours as the ultimate symbol of company loyalty and personal fortitude. Being exhausted is considered a virtue explains a Japanese psychiatrist. So far, only 17 percent of Japanese companies offer over stressed employees some form of counseling. However the Japanese Government has launched an advertising campaign encouraging people to call a Karoshi hotline for anonymous help. The families of deceased workaholics, including Nobuo Mauros relatives are also taking action by suing the employers for lack of due care. 2.55 A report (2001) regarding working out causes of burn out among managers and nurses in Canada concluded that job stress is positively corelated to burn out.The corelation was analysed from various perspective that is emotional exhaustion, lack of accomplishment and depersonalization. Job stress was significantly correlated with overall burnout. In the nursing sample, job stress was also significantly correlated with psychosomatic health problems and organizational commitment. Moderated multiple regressions only marginally supported the role of gender as a moderator of stress-burnout relationship. 2.56 A research article (2001) relating to job stress and gender indicate that there are statistically significant differences in the stress levels of employees based on their gender. With females experience more stress then male. And physical conditions are considered as a most stressful factor for females. Male experiences less stress with physical conditions. Women were found to experience more stress then male. They are more affected by physical conditions such as noise, lightning etc. 2.57 Journal of Managerial Psychology(2006), research report on stress and various enterprizes found that workers in the private s experiernce more stress than the workers in public sector organizations.According to this study the stressors in organization are no knowledge about job, lack of appreciation, lack of evaluation.saudi workers feel extreme stress as compared to others such as arabs,asiana,Europeans,Americans.the stress level of workers is also influenced by educational levels of workers. 2.58 An article on Occupational stress and depression in Korean employees (2001): States that lack of social support,complex and irritating work environment are the prominent elements, which results in depression in korean employees. 2.59 Department of Psychology Applied Psychology research study (2008) ,University of the Punjab,entitled OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND JOB PERFORMANCE indicated that heavy load of work/burden,monotonous work, lack of support from co-workers are major stressors in work set up. Further,it is reported that job stress affect performance of employees. 2.60 In reseach study about Occupational Stress and Employee Control (1992), psychologists has established that job stress is inversly proportional to control over work.Better control over job may results in greater productivity and inflate motivation.entire control is directly related to better health ,output morale. It enhances decision making power of employees and they can easily manage work burden. Psychologists have discovered that demanding tasks requires better control on job. Lack of control result in poor health for employeed. 2.61 Colegio Oficial de Psic.logos (2007) s article has found that stressors in work set up are corelated with poor health. The study reveals that job of psychologist is very stressful. In this comparitive reseach report psychiatrist feel less stress as compared to their colleagues. 2.62 A reprt presented by European Commission (2007), states that job stress negatively affects 40 million employees in Europe alone. 20 billion annually is lost due job stress. It is now established that job stress is big hurdles in better performance and high in cost, Health related problems are also associated with job stress. 2.63AReport on how job stress affects health and output ofNurses in Public Hospitals (2006), Department of Social Work, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, established that job stress has significant effect on physical and mental health of the nurses. It also established that there was a significantdifference in personal and work behaviour of highly stressed nurses and less stressed nurses. Based on these findings,it was recommended that the government (Federal or State) and Hospital Management Boards should improve the welfare of the nurses. It was also recommended that their morale should be boosted by involving them in policy or decision-making concerning their welfare or care of their patients. Their salary should be reviewed and that they should be promoted as at when due. (Research study by University of Ibadan, Nigeria 2006). 2.64 Leo Sin and Danny Cheng (2004) identified six sources of job stress; job-assigned (overload) responsibility (role clarity) work/organizational climates; career; job value conflict; and role ambiguity. These not only overlap with the sources of stress, but also lead to many of the same consequences. Managers, who reported high jobs-assigned stress, role ambiguity stress and work organizational culture stress, also reported higher levels of psychological symptoms such as restlessness and forgetfulness. Those reporting high job-assigned and job value conflict stress reported higher level of psychosomatic symptoms such as headaches, poor appetite and trouble in getting to sleep. Continuing the theme of interrole conflict, research by Aryee at the university of Singapore suggest that family and work roles and stressors impact on perceived work-family conflict and several outcome; job and life satisfaction, turnover intent and perceived work quality. He fond that for a group of married, professional Asian women, work-home conflict increase when they experience overload, high work load , low autonomy and high commitment to family roles. Following through to the consequences of role stress, Aryee found that, in all cases, individual reported lower levels of job satisfaction. (212) More and more we are seeing dual career couples in the work place. As their number increases, so we must ask what the impact of juggling several roles is on their work and home lives. Do problems at work spill over into home life? Do family problems affect our working life? In recent years, the issue of role and mood-spill over has received a lot of researches attention. Research shows that work affects our home lives far more frequently then our home lives impact on work. When work-family conflict exist, individual report more depression, job dissatisfaction, higher cholesterol levels and more somatic complaints (e.g. headaches, insomnia and sweaty palms). What impact does spill over have? When we feel bad do we carry those negative feelings between home and work? Is the same true for pleasant feelings? And how does our involvement either with home or work influence the spill-over process? First research shows that negative mood all spill over far more then positive moods. If we leave work feeling distress, we will carry that mood home with us; however if we leave work feeling elated or calm, it will have little impact on how we feel at home. And this affect is far stronger for women then men. Interestingly the more involved individual are in their jobs, the less mood spill over we see. Over all research shows that work interferes with family far more than family interfere with work, Micheal O Driscoll, at Waikato Universities, together with Cary cooper used a critical incident analysis to determine what stressors are faced by New Zeeland workers and how they respond. According to their survey, the three most important sources of stress are organizational conflict, work over load and a lack of resources. 2.65 Fiona (2003) desribes in her book about a training co found that one in three people complained that technology at work contributes directly to rising stress levels. Referring to this as digital depression the managing director noted how he had recently come across a person who had 19400 emails in his inbox (hilpern 2003) Work stress is thought to contribute to nightmares about killing the boss. Stress at work is contributing to regular nightmares for one in two adults (Womack 2003). Research in Britain found that 51 per cent of respondents suffered work related nightmares at least once a week with the figure rising to 61 percent among Londoners. A row with the boss was the most common dream followed by arriving late for meeting. Worryingly 7 per cent confessed to dreams where they wanted to murder the boss. Over work can lead to death. There have been reports in the newspaper recently of deaths due to over work in Japan. Death due to this rose to 317 in 203 doubling the previous record of 147 cent in 2002. Doctors, factory workers, and taxi driver are the worst affected. (Fiona m.wilson) 2.66 According to a recent study by NIOSH,(2002) reported by Stephen which states that more than half the working people in the united state comsider stress as an irritant in their lives. This is more than double the percentage reported the early 1990s. The people who have experienced stress related illness tripled between 1999 and 2002. In an annual survey released in 2002, 29 per cent of respondents faced severe stress during job in 6 year history. The American institute of stress estimates that stress related- absenteeism, burnout, mental health problems-cost American business approximately $300 bilion a year. The European Community officially dubbed stresses the second biggest occupational health problem facing employers in Europe. (Stephen 2002). 2.67 Murraybruce, (1983, 1990), a specialist in occupational medicine described the todays reaction to stress in the following terms: the heart and breathing rates increased, blood pressure goes up, sweating increases, muscles get tense, the eyes widen, and there is heightened alertness. Tense muscles caused headache, backaches, shoulder and back pain. Clenched hands, clenched jaws, and hunched shoulders along with frowning and fidgeting, figure `tremor, and the mopping of a sweaty brow. An anxious person has butterflies or churning in the stomach, a dry mouth, weak legs, nausea, a thumping heart, breathlessness and a feeling of light-headedness. Course participation at a management college reported on symptoms of stress that they had previously experienced. These included dim or fizzy vision, some chest pain, unusual heart beats, occasional sleep difficulties, frequent episodes of irritability, tiredness, or depression (this was by far the most frequent), and periods in which their work performance was impaired for a few days(melhuish, 1977) Eugene Mckenna (2000), the following is what a 37-years old teacher and head of department at a large comprehensive school, who is also a mother of two children, was reported as having said about her plight. I am exhausted all the time; I do not sleep very well and when I wake up at night I panic about work; I am losing weight; eczema flares up when the pressure increased; frequently I feel guilty because I do not see enough of my children; I over-react when little things go wrong; recently I would not stop crying at weekends; and my marriage would have collapsed by now if I had not such an understanding husband. I cannot go to senior management because it would sound like I cannot cope, and with a new head in the school I feel under even more pressure to perform. I realize that for th sake of my health and marriage, something will have to change. In this case the acute pressure or distress stems from trying to cope with a demanding job coupled with work in the home. 2.68 Stress in different occupations by Eugene Mckenna (2000) analysis of mortality due to atherosclerotic heart disease among U.S males by occupational classification in the age range 20-64 shows that teachers fare better than lawyers, medical practitioners, estate agents, and insurance agents (guralnick, 1963a, 1963b, 1963c). However, general practitioners are more vulnerable to heart disease than are other physicians (morris, heady, and barley, 1952) As to suicide rates, those connected with law enforcement had higher mortality rates then those that administering the law, though individual who exposed to life-threatening situation suffer less stress hen those who are not. Among medical and related personnel, practitioners with above average suicide rates are dentists and psychiatrists. Dentists are said to experience significant preside form the demands of developing their practice. The dentist prone to stress tends to be anxiety prone and more easily upset when confronted with excessive administrative duties and when faced with too little work because of a preoccupation with building and sustaining the practice. Dentists with raised blood pressure perceived, to some extent, their image as inflictions of pain. They also experienced stress from their job interfering with their personal life. 2.69 The Epidemic of the Eighties reported in Time Magazine (1983) considered job stress in the organization is a big problem for workers it negatively effect the health of the workers. The magazine further reported that the situation has become worsened and the workers in the modern America experience more stress than the earlier workers. 2.70 NIOSH (2004) model on STRESS AND PRODUCTIVITY. The below model clearly exhibit the relation between job stress productivity. LOW JOB STRESS = HIGHY PRODUCTIVITY 2.71 stress and productivity (NIOSH 2004)about job stress and productivity NIOSH (2004) presented the folowing model, HIGHY JOB STRESS = LOW PRODUCTIVITY The above model is self explanatory 2.72 The article titled, Job Stress among Teachers Engaged in Nursing(2006) concludesthat job stressors among teachers of nurses are work load and job control,lack of reward, conflict,inter personal relations and qualitative load of work among women. 2.72.1 Asurvey in 2002,titled Occupational Stress in Australian Universities by Anthoy H.(2002) reveals psychological strain, in addition to various work place factors such as job insecurity, job satisfaction, work pressure, and work-home conflict, was highly significantly corelated with a number of stress related health symptoms experienced by staff (eg backache and difficulties in sleeping, headaches, neck pain, viral and cold infections etc). These symptoms were in turn found to be significantly correlated with the number of stress-related medical conditions reported by staff, such as , hypertension , migraines and coronary heart disease. 2.73 Research findings of WHO(2005), research paper indicate the most stress ful type of work is that where demands and pressure are not matched with skill of employees and where there is no oppurtunity, control and support from others. 2.73.1 WHO (2005) report etitled Stress experienced at work can be divided into two groups, work content and work context. The research report of WHO (2005) entitled stress and work hazards states that the hazard at work can be divided into two groups Work contents and Work context, work contents consist of job monotony, workload, work pace, time pressure, working hours, strict or inflexible time un social system badly designd shift system, control process and participation. Work context contain carier development, job status, compensation, insecurity, lack of promtion, low social values, piece rate payment system, unclear and unfair perofmance evalutaion system, over or under skilled for job, role in organisation, interpersonal relationship, organisational culture, work life balance etc. 2.74 According to a research study (2001) on nurses in Ankara Turkey entitled effect of pyhsical enviroment on the stress levels of nurses, states and identify that education level and employment of the nurses are significantly related with the stress levels of hemodylsis nurses. Nurses marital status, occupational seniority, years of working, number of children, age, employment status, husbands occupation and husband educational level are highly significantly co related with their stress level. According to Hans Selye GAS model; Selye (1982) model represent that The General Adaptation Syndrome assumes that each individual will react to a stressful situation in a certain way. It fails to take into account the individuals ability to interpret a threat as a source of pressure and act to change his situation. This ability is considered as coping or adaptation. Model by Williams (1994) exhibits; SOURCESOFSTRESS+COPINGBEHAVIOUR=PERSONALITY+EFFECTS Stress process In this model, the individuals personality attributes, has a very significant influence on the potentiality both of the sources of stress and of the coping behaviours. Cox (1993) emphasises the importance of the feedback loop in models of this kind: If person realise that they are failing to cope with the demands of a task, and experience concern about that failure because it is important, then this is a stress scenario. Stress reduces the performance and as well ability of the person. Cox (1993) indicated two important sources of stress arising from the role pf person in the enterprise that is role ambiguity and role conflict. When a worker has insufficient information about his work, role ambiguity occurs and when indivisual is compell to perform a task in conflict with the values role conflict occurs. Role conflict and ambiguity positively co related with absenteeism, leaving the job, psychological and physiological strain, tension and fatigue. Role conflict and ambiguity is negatively co related with organizational commitment, job involvment, performance, descion making, tolerance, satisfaction, physical with drawal and reported influence. Poorrelations with colleagues, supervisors and subordinates at work have been identified as important risk factors for stress-related problems indicated by Sauter, Murphy and Hurrell (1992). Cox and Griffiths (1995) identify the characteristics of situations experienced as stressful, one of which is individuals are relatively isolated and receive little support from colleagues, supervisors, friends or family (Cox and Griffiths 1995). Ganster (1986) research study found a strong correlation between a lack of social support, especially from a supervisor, and dissatisfaction with work. It clearly show that social support is a significant element in the organization which de enhance the level of stress and increase the level of satisfaction. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) reported in there research study that employees will have better health and moral and satisfaction and performace if they get social support when required. French, Caplan and van Harrisons (1982) research study indicate that some job is assignement characteristics are associated with stress. These characteristics may be too little or too much work, too complex job, more little responsibilities, work burden, long hours survices and greater education needed for that specific job. These characteristics produce discrepancies between indivisual and his assignment so here it means that job stress may be the co relation between job and person (French, Caplan and van Harrison, 1982). Physical and environmental factors causing stress. Physical and environmental factors can have an effect on the stress experienced by a person in the workplace. Examples are lighting, ventilation, noise, vibration, chemicals, dust, badly designed machinery and equipment, and badly designed premises.(The London Hazards Centre 1994). Burke (1988) reports the most frequently mentioned environmental stressors as including density and crowding, lack of privacy, high noise levels, vibrations and/or sound waves, temperature extremes, air movement and background colour and illumination. Stress may affect health Teasdale and McKeown, (1994) reports that Stress itself is not an illness, rather it is a state. However it is a very powerful cause of illness. Long-term excessive stress is known to lead to serious health problems The relationship between stress/strain and a variety of adverse physical and psychological health conditions is well-established. Stress may affect health. At the same time, however, a state of ill health can act as a significant source of stress, and may also sensitise individuals to other sources of stress by reducing their ability to cope. Within these limits, the common assumption of a relationship between the experience of stress and poor health appears justified. Russek and Zohman (1958) compared young [25-40] CHD patients with a healthy control group and found that whilst only 20% of the control group reported prolonged stress related to work, 91% of the CHD patients did so. The patients also reported heavy workloads, with 46% working more than 60 hours per week and 20% doing two jobs. 20% reported frustration, discontent, insecurity or inadequacies in relation to their jobs. Breslau and Buell (1960) also found a correlation between long working hours and CHD. In a study of younger [under 45] workers in light industry those working more than 48 hours per week had double the risk of death from CHD than similar workers working less than 40 hours per week. Weiman (1977) reports a study [carried out in 1974] of 1540 officers of a large financial institution who were subjects of periodic health checks, including a questionnaire on occupational stress. Weiman found that: There is a significantly higher incidence of disease when particular stressors are operating. It is also evident that disease/risk occurs more frequently when workers are either under-stimulated or over-stimulated, In review of the research on the associations between occupational stress and CHD, Landsbergis (1993) found that twelve out of fourteen studies reviewed showed a clear link. He estimated that 23% of CHD deaths in the US were potentially preventable if the stress levels in the worst jobs were reduced to average levels. An investigation by the Post Office occupational health service (IRS, 1994) found that psychological problems were the second most common reason for early retirement on health grounds [after orthopaedic injury]. The pressure group The London Hazards Centre (LHC, 1994) list an array of outcomes of working excessive hours, including physical and psychological fatigue, increased risk of heart disease, sleep difficulties, sexual disorders, gastric disturbances, headaches, backaches, dizziness, weight loss, apathy, depression, disorganisation, feelings of incapability, irritability, intolerance, boredom and cynicism. The most extreme consequence is sudden death. Cranwell-Ward (1995) reports that death from overwork [karoshi in Japanese] has been officially registered as a fatal illness in Japan since 1989, and goes onin 1990 the labour ministry received 777 applications for compensation because of karoshi. A more common outcome of stress/strain is an increase in accident rates at work (LHC, 1994). Carter and Corlett (1981), in a review of the literature on mental health and involvement in accidents, reported that the mental state of the operator, whether he is fatigued or over-aroused, alert or distracted, has been the most frequently suggested reason for accident-causation during shiftwork. Cartwright et al (1993) studied accidents involving company car drivers from three subsidiaries of a major company, and related them to stress levels. They found the highest rates in the subsidiary which also returned higher levels of occupational stress, poorer physical health, poorer mental health and lower job satisfaction. They concluded thatthe significantly higher levels of occupational stress within [the subsidiary with the highest accident rate] indicate that stress is playing a major role in predicting accident rates. Prolonged exposure to stress can result in the phenomenon of burnout, defined as exhaustion, underachievement, and the inability to handle personal relationships (LHC, 1994), Cox (1993) identifies from the literature several effects of stress which he believes may be of direct concern to organisations. Some of these, such as reduced availability for work involving high turnover, absenteeism and poor time keeping he classifies as essentially escape strategies. Others involve what is described as presenteeism people continue to report for work but their performance and involvement is poor. Cox suggests that this may result in impaired work performance and productivity, with consequent increases in client complaints. Fingret (1994) also emphasises the damage caused to organisations by presenteeism, claiming that occupational health practitioners and psychologists are well aware of significant levels of stress and psychological maladjustment which have not resulted in significant sickness absence. Fingret argues that this may be even more damaging to business efficiency that the absences which though carrying physical illness labels, are in fact related to l ack of mental well-being. Cooper (1994) refers to the huge costs of people turning up to work who are so distressed by their jobs or some aspect of the organizational climate that they contribute little, if anything, to their work. Where employees are required to exercise creativity and initiative these effects may be even more pronounced. Talbot, Cooper and Barrow (1992) studied 202 managers [a sub-set of a wider study involving 1083 respondents, all from one organisation]. They found significant negative correlations between stress and the potential for creativity, although they were unable to ascribe a causal relationship between stress and creativity because both may be an outcome of something else. Karasek and Theorell (1990) hypothesise that accumulated level of unresolved strain [or anxiety level] appears to restrict a persons ability to learn solutions to new problems. The literature on burnout has also demonstrated that prolonged job stress is associated with decline in initiatives at work. Task performance is also found to be impaired when stress exceeds an individuals tolerance level. Selye (1982) maintains that under stress people often perform at higher levels, but if the stress continues exhaustion sets in and leads to a range of problems [diseases of adaptation]. (Selye 1982)